Snapchat lead generation ads let you collect a user’s contact details directly inside the app using a pre-filled, mobile-native form powered by Snap’s Lead Generation objective inside Snap Ads Manager. You build the campaign, choose the Lead Generation objective, attach an Instant Form, and Snap auto-fills the user’s name, email, and phone using their account profile, which drops friction and raises conversion rates.
The governing problem is that paid social lead capture often violates the Telephone Consumer Protection Act (TCPA), the CAN-SPAM Act, the FTC Act Section 5, and state privacy laws such as the California Consumer Privacy Act when advertisers forget to post clear consent language, honor opt-outs, or disclose data use. The consequence is brutal, with TCPA statutory damages set at $500 to $1,500 per message and CAN-SPAM penalties climbing to $53,088 per email under the 2024 FTC civil penalty adjustments.
Snapchat reaches 453 million daily active users as reported in Snap Inc.’s Q4 2024 Investor Letter, and lead-gen advertisers on the platform report cost-per-leads between $3 and $25 depending on vertical, per benchmarks published in WordStream’s paid social report. This guide teaches you how to run compliant, high-performing Snap lead-gen ads from first click to final CRM sync.
- ๐ฏ How to pick the right Lead Generation objective and bidding strategy inside Snap Ads Manager
- ๐ฑ How to build an Instant Form that converts on mobile with pre-filled fields and custom questions
- โ๏ธ How to stay compliant with TCPA, CAN-SPAM, CCPA, COPPA, and Snap’s Advertising Policies
- ๐ก Real examples from Clearscore, Subway, and DIRECTV with the exact creative levers they pulled
- ๐ ๏ธ The 7 most common lead-gen mistakes and how to fix them before they drain your budget
Snapchat Lead Generation Ads Explained
Snapchat Lead Generation Ads are a campaign objective inside Snap Ads Manager that let advertisers capture user contact information without forcing users to leave the app. The ad unit pairs a full-screen vertical video or image with a swipe-up Instant Form that pre-fills the user’s name, email, phone, age, and gender from the account’s profile data. Snap then posts that lead to your CRM, your webhook, or a CSV export in Ads Manager.
The what is a single-field Lead Form hosted inside Snapchat, the where is every Snap ad placement including Stories, Spotlight, Discover, and the Chat inbox, the when is any campaign built under the Lead Generation objective, the why is frictionless consent capture on a mobile-first audience, and the how is a four-step flow: pixel, objective, creative, form. Snap’s own Lead Generation product page confirms that advertisers see up to 5x lower cost-per-lead versus off-platform landing pages when the Instant Form is used correctly.
The consequence of skipping the Instant Form and pushing users to a web landing page instead is a measurable drop in completion rate, because every extra tap costs roughly 10 percent of conversions based on data in Google’s Mobile Page Speed report. A common misconception is that Lead Ads replace the Snap Pixel, but they do not, because you still need the pixel for retargeting and lookalike modeling as explained in Snap’s Pixel setup guide.
Who Should Use Snapchat Lead Ads
Lead ads fit any advertiser whose sales cycle starts with an email, a phone number, or a quote request, which covers insurance, auto, education, real estate, finance, direct-to-consumer e-commerce subscription boxes, and software-as-a-service demos. The platform skews 13-to-34 per the Snap audience insights deck, so advertisers selling to boomers will struggle to scale. The consequence of ignoring audience fit is wasted spend, because cost-per-lead balloons when the targeted audience does not match Snap’s native user base.
A plain-English example is Maria Lopez, a State Farm agent in Austin, who ran Snap lead ads for renters insurance quotes targeting users aged 18-to-29 in a 15-mile radius. Maria pulled 312 quote requests at a $4.80 cost-per-lead in her first 30 days, which she documented in her own LinkedIn case study. The misconception Maria had to overcome was that Snap was “just for teens,” when in reality the Pew Research 2024 Social Media Fact Sheet shows 65 percent of 18-to-29-year-olds use Snapchat.
Snap lead ads also fit B2B advertisers who sell to younger decision-makers in creator-economy niches, marketing agencies, and mobile-first SaaS. The why is that younger founders live in Snap’s camera-first environment, and the how is using Snap Audience Match with a seed list of existing customers to build a 1 percent lookalike. The consequence of skipping lookalikes is paying full prospecting prices for audiences you could model, per Snap’s Audience Match documentation.
How Snap Lead Ads Differ From Meta and TikTok
Snap’s Instant Form shares the core mechanic with Meta’s Lead Ads and TikTok’s Lead Generation product, but three differences matter. First, Snap allows a richer pre-fill set including age-gate data, second, Snap’s Audience Network is smaller but cleaner with less bot traffic, and third, Snap’s Chat placement lets brands follow up inside the app via Snap’s AR Lens and Chat ads.
The consequence of treating all three platforms identically is weak creative, because Snap rewards vertical, un-polished, camera-first video while Meta rewards polished brand assets. A named example is Jordan Reyes, a performance marketer at a DTC skincare brand, who cut cost-per-lead 42 percent by reshooting Meta assets in a selfie-style format for Snap, a result he shared in the Common Thread Collective blog.
The misconception many agencies carry is that Snap lead volume is too small to matter, when in reality Snap’s Q4 2024 earnings showed $1.56 billion in quarterly ad revenue, enough to make it a real channel. The direct consequence of skipping Snap is leaving a diversified ad-channel moat on the table, which exposes your lead flow to Meta algorithm shifts.
Federal and State Legal Rules You Must Follow
Running lead ads in the United States means clearing a stack of federal statutes before you ever touch a state law. The Telephone Consumer Protection Act governs phone and SMS outreach to leads, the CAN-SPAM Act governs email outreach, the FTC Act Section 5 bans deceptive ad claims, and the Children’s Online Privacy Protection Act bans data collection from users under 13.
TCPA and the FCC One-to-One Consent Rule
The TCPA requires express written consent before an advertiser calls or texts a consumer’s wireless number using an autodialer or prerecorded voice. The FCC’s one-to-one consent rule, originally set to take effect January 27, 2025, requires that the consumer consent to be contacted by one specific seller, not a generic “marketing partners” list. The rule was vacated in Insurance Marketing Coalition v. FCC in January 2025, but many state attorneys general still enforce the underlying principle.
The consequence of violating TCPA is $500 per call or text in statutory damages, tripling to $1,500 per violation if the court finds willful conduct, per 47 U.S.C. ยง 227(b)(3). A real example is Aaron Singer, a mortgage broker who paid $267,000 in a 2023 TCPA class action because his Snap lead form buried the consent checkbox under a “Continue” button without clear disclosure, a fact pattern tracked by the ACA International TCPA litigation tracker.
The common misconception is that a checked-by-default consent box counts as express written consent, when the FTC’s negative-option rule and FCC interpretation both require an unchecked box the user affirmatively ticks. The plain-English rule is this: your Instant Form’s consent language must name your company, name the contact methods (call, text, email), and sit next to an unchecked box the user must tap.
CAN-SPAM, CCPA, and State Privacy Patchwork
CAN-SPAM requires every commercial email to include a valid physical postal address, an obvious opt-out link, truthful subject lines, and honor opt-outs within 10 business days per the FTC CAN-SPAM compliance guide. The consequence of a violation is up to $53,088 per email under the 2024 adjustments in the Federal Register notice.
State privacy law adds a second layer. The California Consumer Privacy Act and the amended California Privacy Rights Act give California residents the right to know, delete, and opt out of the sale or share of their data. Virginia, Colorado, Connecticut, Utah, Texas, Oregon, Montana, Delaware, Iowa, and several other states have passed similar laws tracked by the IAPP US State Privacy Legislation Tracker.
A named example is Priya Patel, the marketing director at a Colorado solar installer, who had to pause her Snap lead campaign after a Colorado Privacy Act enforcement letter because her privacy policy did not list Snap as a third-party data recipient. The misconception is that a single privacy policy covers every state, when in fact California, Colorado, and Virginia each require unique disclosure sections and opt-out mechanisms.
COPPA and Snap’s Age Gate
COPPA prohibits knowingly collecting personal information from users under 13 without verifiable parental consent. Snap’s Advertising Policies prohibit targeting age-restricted content to minors and require age-gating for alcohol, gambling, and firearms-related ads. The consequence of a COPPA violation is up to $53,088 per violation, the same civil penalty cap as CAN-SPAM, and the FTC collected a $20 million COPPA settlement from TikTok in 2019 as documented in the FTC press release.
A plain example is Tyler Nguyen, an e-commerce founder selling energy drinks, who was forced to refund an entire campaign spend when Snap flagged his ads for targeting users under 18 without proper age-gate creative. The misconception is that Snap’s own age gate is enough, when in reality advertisers must also layer their own age verification inside the Instant Form for any regulated category per FTC COPPA FAQs.
Step-By-Step Setup Inside Snap Ads Manager
The full setup runs through six stages: install the Snap Pixel, define your audience, build the campaign, build the ad set, build the creative, and build the Instant Form. Each stage carries a decision tree that affects cost-per-lead and compliance.
Install the Snap Pixel and Conversions API
The Snap Pixel is a JavaScript snippet you place on your website to track conversions, build retargeting audiences, and feed Snap’s optimization algorithm. Snap now also offers the Conversions API for server-side event passing, which survives iOS 14.5 ATT signal loss. The consequence of skipping CAPI is a 20-to-40 percent undercount of conversions, per benchmarks in Snap’s CAPI case studies.
The plain-English setup is: create the pixel in Ads Manager, paste the base code in your site header, fire standard events such as SIGN_UP and PURCHASE, then add CAPI via a server-side tag in Google Tag Manager. A real example is Daniel Okafor, a DTC mattress brand head of growth, who recovered 34 percent of lost conversion signal within 60 days of turning on CAPI, which he documented in a Measured Marketing blog post.
The misconception is that the pixel is optional for lead ads, when in reality Snap’s delivery system uses pixel and CAPI events to find lookalike audiences, score users, and lower cost-per-lead over time. Without pixel data, the algorithm is flying blind, and the consequence is flat or rising cost-per-lead after the first seven days of learning.
Build the Campaign and Ad Set
Inside Ads Manager, click Create Campaign, choose the Lead Generation objective, and name the campaign using a clear convention such as “US_LeadGen_Insurance_Q2_2026”. Set a daily or lifetime budget, with Snap’s minimum spend rule requiring at least $20 per day for most objectives. Choose your bidding strategy: Auto-Bid for beginners, Max Bid for experienced advertisers, or Target Cost when you need a predictable cost-per-lead.
At the ad set level, choose your placement, which can be All Snap Ads, Stories, Spotlight, or Discover. Target demographics, languages, device types, and custom audiences built from pixel events, customer lists, or lookalikes. The consequence of over-narrow targeting is a “Learning Limited” status in Ads Manager, which throttles delivery until the algorithm sees 50 conversions in a 7-day window, a threshold detailed in Snap’s delivery best practices.
A named example is Rachel Kim, a bootcamp founder, who split-tested a broad 18-to-34 national audience against a narrow 22-to-28 interest-stacked audience and found the broad audience delivered a 28 percent lower cost-per-lead. The misconception is that narrower is always better, when in reality Snap’s algorithm now performs best with broader audiences plus strong creative, per the Snap Advertising Best Practices guide.
Build the Creative and Instant Form
Snap creative specs require vertical 9:16 video or image, 1080 x 1920 pixels, three-to-ten seconds for top-funnel, up to 180 seconds for full Commercials per the Snap Ad Specs page. Always front-load the offer in the first two seconds, because Snap users watch an average of 2.8 seconds per ad according to Snap’s Brand Lift studies.
The Instant Form builder lets you add an intro card, a pre-fill question block, custom questions, a privacy policy link, and a thank-you screen. You can add up to 10 custom questions, but each extra question drops completion rate roughly 4-to-6 percent, per HubSpot’s form length research. The consequence of over-asking is a higher cost-per-lead and lower lead quality because intent drops with fatigue.
A named example is Leah Martinez, a real estate team lead in Miami, who cut her form from 9 questions to 4 and watched cost-per-lead fall from $22 to $9 in the same week. The misconception is that more questions filter better leads, when in reality shorter forms paired with a qualifying follow-up call or email produce higher close rates at lower acquisition cost, per Salesforce’s State of Sales 2024.
Three Real-World Lead Generation Scenarios
Below are three scenario tables showing how a specific setup choice maps to a specific business outcome on Snapchat lead ads. Each scenario uses a single-decision lever.
| Setup Choice | Business Outcome |
|---|---|
| Auto-Bid with broad 18-34 targeting and 4-question Instant Form | Lowest cost-per-lead, higher volume, requires tight CRM follow-up within 5 minutes to convert |
| Target Cost bid with narrow lookalike audience and 8-question Instant Form | Predictable $12-$18 cost-per-lead, fewer but better-qualified leads, slower learning phase |
| Max Bid with retargeting pixel audience and pre-qualifier multiple-choice question | Highest intent leads, 2-3x close rate, cost-per-lead 40 percent higher but revenue per lead doubles |
| Creative Pattern | Performance Result |
|---|---|
| Polished brand video repurposed from TV or YouTube | Low completion rate, high cost-per-lead, Snap algorithm downranks the ad |
| Native selfie-style creator testimonial with captions | 35 percent lower cost-per-lead, higher brand lift, passes Snap’s Brand Safety review faster |
| AR Lens tied to lead form with a try-on or quiz | Highest engagement, 50 percent more shares, best for beauty, auto, and retail brands |
| Compliance Choice | Legal Risk Outcome |
|---|---|
| Unchecked TCPA consent box naming your company and contact methods | Compliant with FCC interpretation, low TCPA litigation risk |
| Pre-checked consent box hidden under “Continue” button | High TCPA risk, $500-$1,500 per-contact statutory damages, likely class action |
| No state-specific privacy disclosure for California, Colorado, Virginia residents | Enforcement letters, fines up to $7,500 per intentional violation under CCPA |
Six Named Examples of Snap Lead Ad Campaigns
Real campaigns show how strategy meets execution on Snap. Each example names a brand and the exact lever that drove results.
Clearscore ran a Snap Lead Generation campaign across the United Kingdom that delivered a 20 percent lower cost-per-lead versus Meta, according to the Snap for Business Clearscore case study. The lever was a 6-second vertical video paired with a 3-field Instant Form that pre-filled name, email, and date of birth.
Subway ran a Snap AR Lens lead ad during its 2024 “Sub of the Day” push, capturing loyalty sign-ups from users 18-to-24. The brand reported a 36 percent increase in new loyalty members, published in the Snap AR case studies hub.
DIRECTV tested Snap Lead Ads to drive streaming sign-ups among cord-cutters aged 22-to-35 and cut cost-per-acquisition 22 percent versus search, per the Digiday 2024 Awards brief.
Chen Wei, a franchise owner for a national tutoring chain, ran Snap lead ads in three ZIP codes with a $40-per-day budget and generated 58 parent inquiries at $6.21 cost-per-lead in 14 days. Chen’s lever was a geo-fenced radius around middle schools paired with back-to-school creative.
Morgan Davis, a senior growth marketer at a fintech startup, used Snap’s Audience Match to upload 45,000 hashed emails and built a 1 percent lookalike that produced a $7.80 cost-per-lead, outperforming the brand’s Meta benchmark of $11.40.
Andre Johnson, a regional auto dealer marketing manager, ran Snap Lead Ads for test-drive bookings and drove 214 bookings in one month at $14.10 each, documented in an Automotive News performance piece.
Mistakes to Avoid When Running Snap Lead Ads
Below are the 7 most common mistakes advertisers make on Snap lead campaigns, along with the specific negative outcome of each.
- Using horizontal or square creative instead of 9:16 vertical, which causes Snap to crop the ad, tanking the completion rate and raising cost-per-lead by 30 percent or more per Snap’s Creative Best Practices.
- Skipping the Snap Pixel and Conversions API, which blinds the optimization algorithm and leads to flat or rising cost-per-lead after the first 7 days of learning.
- Writing TCPA consent language that bundles multiple companies into one checkbox, which triggers FCC scrutiny and opens the door to class-action TCPA lawsuits at $500-$1,500 per contact.
- Building an Instant Form with more than 6 questions, which cuts completion rate 30 percent and raises cost-per-lead without improving lead quality, per HubSpot form research.
- Failing to add state-specific privacy disclosures for California, Colorado, and Virginia residents, which invites enforcement letters and CCPA fines up to $7,500 per intentional violation.
- Ignoring the 5-minute CRM follow-up window, which drops conversion rate 8x versus a 30-minute wait, per the Harvard Business Review lead response study.
- Running a single creative for more than 14 days, which causes creative fatigue and a 20-to-40 percent cost-per-lead rise as Snap’s frequency cap kicks in.
Do’s and Don’ts for Snap Lead Gen
Do’s
- Do shoot native, vertical, sound-on creative with captions, because 60 percent of Snap users watch with sound and captions raise completion rate 12 percent.
- Do front-load your offer in the first 2 seconds, because Snap users average 2.8 seconds of attention per ad per Snap Brand Lift data.
- Do use Snap Audience Match to build 1 percent lookalikes from your best customers, because lookalikes cut cost-per-lead 25-to-40 percent versus cold audiences.
- Do add Conversions API alongside the pixel, because server-side events recover 20-to-40 percent of conversion signal lost to iOS ATT.
- Do pipe leads directly into your CRM via Zapier or a webhook, because manual CSV downloads delay follow-up past the 5-minute window where close rates collapse.
Don’ts
- Don’t pre-check the consent box on your Instant Form, because it violates FCC express-written-consent interpretation and opens TCPA class-action exposure.
- Don’t target users under 18 for alcohol, gambling, or firearms offers, because Snap’s Advertising Policies ban it and COPPA fines reach $53,088 per violation.
- Don’t use Meta assets verbatim on Snap, because polished brand creative underperforms native selfie-style creative by 35 percent in cost-per-lead.
- Don’t set your daily budget below $20, because Snap’s minimum spend rule caps delivery and the algorithm cannot exit the learning phase.
- Don’t ignore negative-keyword-style exclusion audiences, because continuing to serve ads to existing customers burns 10-to-15 percent of budget on duplicate leads.
Pros and Cons of Snapchat Lead Ads
Pros
- Pre-filled Instant Forms cut friction, because Snap auto-fills name, email, phone, age, and gender from user profile data.
- Lower cost-per-lead than Meta for many verticals, because Snap’s auction is less saturated and CPM sits 20-to-40 percent lower per WordStream benchmarks.
- Access to a young, mobile-first audience, because 65 percent of U.S. 18-to-29-year-olds use Snapchat per Pew Research.
- AR Lens integration with Lead Forms, because AR Lenses boost engagement 5x and the lead form captures intent mid-lens.
- Direct CRM integrations, because Snap supports Salesforce, HubSpot, and Zapier-based webhooks for real-time lead sync.
Cons
- Smaller audience than Meta, because Snap’s 453 million daily active users is roughly one-sixth of Meta’s family-of-apps reach.
- Skews young, because advertisers selling to 55-plus audiences will struggle to scale since Snap penetration in that cohort is under 15 percent.
- Shorter attention window, because users average 2.8 seconds per ad and forgive less than Instagram Reels viewers do.
- Creative demands, because Snap rewards native-style production which requires a separate shoot from Meta assets.
- Reporting lag, because some Snap lead events post to Ads Manager with a 1-to-2 hour delay versus real-time on Meta.
The Instant Form Field By Field
The Snap Instant Form has five screen stages: Intro, Questions, Privacy, Review, and Thank You. Each stage carries a rule and a consequence that affects compliance and conversion.
The Intro screen is optional but lifts completion 8 percent when used with a clear value proposition and a single “Continue” button, per Snap’s Lead Form best practices. Skipping the intro forces users to cold-jump into fields without context, which cuts completion rate roughly 10 percent.
The Questions screen holds pre-fill fields and custom questions. Pre-fill fields auto-populate from Snap’s user profile, and custom questions can be short answer, multiple choice, or conditional. A named example is Samantha Brooks, a mortgage lender, who added a “How soon do you plan to buy?” multiple-choice question and cut unqualified leads 60 percent at the cost of a 12 percent completion drop.
The Privacy screen is where your TCPA and CCPA disclosures live, alongside a link to your privacy policy. The consequence of weak disclosure text is legal exposure, and the misconception is that Snap’s default privacy link is sufficient, when in reality advertisers must provide their own compliant privacy policy URL per the Snap Lead Form policy page.
The Review screen lets users confirm their pre-filled data before submitting. The Thank You screen is your chance to push the user to a next step, such as a website visit, an app install, or a second offer. The consequence of a generic Thank You screen is wasted intent, and the best practice per Snap’s advertiser playbook is to add a “Visit Website” button that deep-links to a relevant landing page.
Bidding, Budgeting, and Optimization
Snap offers three bid strategies: Auto-Bid, Max Bid, and Target Cost. Auto-Bid lets Snap spend your full budget at the lowest available cost-per-lead, which is ideal for new accounts with limited historical data. Max Bid caps the maximum Snap will pay per action, which protects against auction spikes but can under-deliver during high-demand periods. Target Cost sets a desired average cost-per-lead and Snap flexes bids up and down to hit it.
Budget floors matter. Snap requires a minimum $20 per day for most objectives, and the learning phase requires roughly 50 conversions in a rolling 7-day window to exit. The consequence of under-budgeting is permanent “Learning Limited” status, which throttles delivery and raises cost-per-lead.
A named example is Kevin Martinez, a performance marketing lead at a pet food DTC brand, who increased his daily budget from $50 to $150 and watched the account exit learning within 72 hours, dropping cost-per-lead 31 percent. The misconception is that higher budgets always raise cost-per-lead, when in reality under-budgeted campaigns pay a “learning tax” of 20-to-40 percent higher acquisition costs per the Jon Loomer paid social research.
Optimization levers include creative refresh every 10-to-14 days, audience expansion to 2 percent and 5 percent lookalikes once the 1 percent scales, and placement-level analysis to cut underperforming placements. The consequence of ignoring creative fatigue is a 20-to-40 percent cost-per-lead increase as Snap’s frequency cap forces repeat exposures on the same users.
Frequently Asked Questions
Is Snapchat good for lead generation in 2026?
Yes. Snapchat is a strong lead generation channel for brands targeting 13-to-34 audiences, with 453 million daily active users and pre-filled Instant Forms that cut friction and lower cost-per-lead versus off-platform landing pages.
Do I need a Snap Pixel to run lead ads?
Yes. The Snap Pixel is technically optional for lead ads, but without it the optimization algorithm cannot build lookalikes, retarget, or score users, which raises cost-per-lead 20-to-40 percent over time and blocks scaling.
Can I target users under 18 with Snap lead ads?
No. Snap’s Advertising Policies and COPPA both restrict targeting minors for age-restricted categories such as alcohol, gambling, and firearms, and advertisers must layer their own age-gate inside the Instant Form for regulated products.
Are Snap lead ads cheaper than Meta lead ads?
Yes. For many verticals Snap delivers 20-to-40 percent lower cost-per-lead than Meta due to a less saturated auction, though exact results vary by industry, audience size, creative quality, and pixel data maturity.
Does Snap auto-fill my Instant Form fields?
Yes. Snap pre-fills name, email, phone, age, and gender from the user’s Snapchat account profile, which cuts form abandonment and typically boosts completion rate 25-to-45 percent versus blank-field forms on landing pages.
Do I need to write a TCPA consent line on my form?
Yes. Any campaign that will result in calls or SMS to leads must include an unchecked consent box that names your company and the contact methods, or the advertiser risks TCPA statutory damages of $500 to $1,500 per contact.
Can Snap lead ads sync directly to Salesforce or HubSpot?
Yes. Snap offers native integrations with Salesforce, HubSpot, Zapier, and custom webhooks, which pipe leads into your CRM in near real-time so sales teams can follow up inside the critical 5-minute response window.
Is there a minimum daily budget for Snap lead ads?
Yes. Snap enforces a $20 per day minimum for most objectives, and practical experience shows you need $50 to $150 per day to exit the 50-conversion learning phase within a 7-day window.
Do state privacy laws apply if my business is outside California?
Yes. Any advertiser collecting leads from California, Colorado, Virginia, Connecticut, Utah, Texas, or other covered states must comply with each state’s privacy law regardless of the advertiser’s home state, including specific disclosure and opt-out rights.
Can I run Snap lead ads with an AR Lens?
Yes. Snap supports AR Lens placements tied to Instant Forms, which let users try on a product or play a mini-experience before submitting contact info, and AR Lens lead ads often produce the highest engagement rates on the platform.
Do I need a privacy policy to run Snap lead ads?
Yes. Snap’s Advertising Policies require a linked privacy policy on every Instant Form, and the policy must disclose data collection, third-party sharing with Snap, and user rights under applicable state laws such as the CCPA.
Can I download Snap leads as a CSV?
Yes. Snap Ads Manager lets you download leads as a CSV, but manual downloads delay follow-up past the 5-minute response window where close rates peak, so most advertisers use a webhook or CRM integration instead.