No, a standard Microsoft 365 E3 subscription does not include the full Microsoft 365 Copilot experience inside Word, Excel, PowerPoint, Outlook, and Teams. E3 does give every licensed user free access to Microsoft 365 Copilot Chat, a secure, web-grounded AI chat assistant that Microsoft bundled into commercial plans in January 2025, but the deep, tenant-grounded Copilot that writes documents, summarizes inboxes, and builds spreadsheets is a separate paid add-on that costs roughly $30 per user per month on top of E3.
The governing document here is the Microsoft Product Terms, together with the Microsoft 365 Copilot service description, which both list Copilot as an add-on SKU that requires a qualifying base license such as E3, E5, Business Standard, or Business Premium. The immediate negative consequence of assuming E3 includes the full Copilot is a compliance and budget shock, because IT teams who promise Copilot features to executives only to discover the $30 add-on must be purchased separately often face procurement delays and broken rollout timelines, as the 2026 Microsoft Copilot licensing guide from Redress Compliance documents in detail.
According to the March 2026 Adoptify AI pricing report, roughly 67 percent of Microsoft 365 enterprise customers now run on E3 as their base tier, making this the single most common starting point for any Copilot conversation in 2026.
- 🧩 How the free Copilot Chat already baked into E3 differs from the paid Microsoft 365 Copilot add-on in concrete feature terms.
- 💵 What E3 plus Copilot really costs in 2026, including the July 1, 2026 base-price increase flagged by Directions on Microsoft.
- ⚖️ Which U.S. federal and state compliance frameworks change what E3 customers can safely do with each flavor of Copilot.
- 🧠 Three realistic scenarios showing exactly when E3 alone is enough and when you need the add-on.
- 🧾 The most common licensing mistakes that trigger true-up bills, broken pilots, and failed audits.
What Microsoft 365 E3 Actually Includes in 2026
Microsoft 365 E3 is the company’s flagship enterprise productivity plan, and the official E3 product page lists its list price at $36.00 per user per month on an annual commitment, scheduled to rise to $39.00 per user per month on July 1, 2026. The plan bundles the full desktop Office apps, Exchange Online, SharePoint, OneDrive, Teams, Intune Plan 1, Entra ID P1, Windows 11 Enterprise E3, and baseline Microsoft Purview compliance tooling. It is the foundation license most U.S. enterprises buy before they even consider AI features.
The plain-English explanation matters because many buyers confuse E3 with Office 365 E3, which is a slimmer plan that lacks Windows and Intune. The consequence of mixing them up is an instant gap in device management and identity protection, and the real-world example here is common: a Dallas-based logistics firm buys Office 365 E3 thinking it covers laptops, then discovers it has no Intune entitlement and must add E3 device management or upgrade the whole tenant. The common misconception is that all E3 plans are identical; in truth, Microsoft sells two very different E3s, and only Microsoft 365 E3 includes Windows and Intune as highlighted in the TrustedTechTeam 2026 plan update.
Core Productivity Apps Bundled With E3
Every E3 seat includes locally installed versions of Word, Excel, PowerPoint, Outlook, OneNote, Publisher on Windows, and Access on Windows, as described in the Office 365 E3 plan details. Users also get the web and mobile versions of those apps, so a single license covers up to five PCs or Macs, five tablets, and five phones per person. This gives the user a consistent work surface whether they sit in an office in Chicago or travel to a client in São Paulo.
E3 also includes the cloud services that make those apps useful: Exchange Online with a 100 GB mailbox, SharePoint Online, 1 TB of OneDrive for Business, Microsoft Teams, Microsoft Loop, Viva Connections, Power Apps for Microsoft 365, Power Automate for Microsoft 365, and Microsoft Stream. The consequence of skipping any of these in a lower plan is fragmented collaboration, because Copilot, when added, grounds its answers in these exact services through Microsoft Graph. A marketing manager named Priya Shah at a Boston nonprofit once tried to add Copilot to a tenant that used Google Drive for files; Copilot could not ground on her work data and produced generic answers, a failure mode directly tied to missing SharePoint and OneDrive usage.
A common misconception is that Teams Premium is part of E3; it is not, and the paid Copilot experience inside Teams meetings, including intelligent recap in some scenarios, still requires either Teams Premium or the Microsoft 365 Copilot add-on, as the Cloudrun February 2026 explainer explains.
Security and Compliance in E3
E3 ships with Microsoft Entra ID P1, Intune Plan 1, Microsoft Defender for Office 365 P1 starting July 2026, Microsoft Purview Data Loss Prevention for Exchange and SharePoint, Purview Message Encryption, basic sensitivity labels, Customer Lockbox, and Windows Hello for Business. The Apex Digital 2026 price update confirms that Intune Plan 2 and Remote Help are being added to E3 at the 2026 renewal date, which matters for Copilot because Copilot honors existing sensitivity labels and Intune device compliance policies when grounding answers.
The consequence of deploying Copilot on an E3 tenant that has not turned on sensitivity labels is predictable oversharing. Copilot will surface any document the user can technically see, even ones the user forgot existed, as covered in the Compare E3 and E5 Copilot features guide from Microsoft Learn. A real-world example: James Whitfield, a compliance officer at a Pennsylvania hospital, piloted Copilot on E3 without labels and watched it surface a draft board memo to a summer intern. The common misconception is that E3’s DLP alone is enough; in reality, you need Purview sensitivity labels, which E3 supports at a basic level and E5 extends with auto-labeling.
Copilot Is Not One Product, It Is Seven
When people ask whether E3 includes Copilot, the honest answer depends on which Copilot you mean. Microsoft now ships at least seven distinct Copilot products, each with its own license, its own data handling, and its own U.S. compliance posture. Confusing them creates a real regulatory problem because the FTC guidance on AI claims and the upcoming state AI laws in Colorado and California penalize vendors and buyers who misrepresent AI capabilities to end users or customers.
The consequence of lumping them together is that procurement teams may pay for features they already have, or skip features they legally need. A mini-scenario: Lena Ortiz, a CFO at a Seattle software firm, assumed GitHub Copilot came with E3 because her engineers kept saying “Copilot”; she canceled the team’s $19 per user GitHub Copilot Business licenses and broke the dev workflow overnight. The common misconception is that one Copilot license covers everything; each Copilot is a separate SKU with a separate contract.
Copilot Free (consumer)
This is the public, consumer version at copilot.microsoft.com, available to anyone with a personal Microsoft account. It runs on GPT-class models, generates images, and answers web questions, but it has no connection to your tenant, no enterprise data protection, and no SOC 2 or HIPAA posture for your work content. Using it with work data is a textbook data-leak risk, and that is the immediate negative consequence under most corporate acceptable-use policies.
A named example: Marcus Bell, an HR analyst in Ohio, pasted a list of layoffs into Copilot Free to draft a communication; the prompt left the corporate boundary, and the company received a Purview DLP alert but only after the fact. The common misconception is that signing in with a work email makes the free Copilot enterprise-safe, when in fact the protections only apply if the service is the Microsoft 365 Copilot Chat flavor that the Microsoft Learn Copilot Chat overview describes.
Microsoft 365 Copilot Chat (included with E3)
This is the Copilot that is included in E3. Microsoft launched it as a bundled benefit in January 2025, and as of 2026 it is available to every user with Business Basic, Business Standard, Business Premium, E3, E5, or F3, as the Primend comparison guide lays out. Copilot Chat provides secure, AI-powered chat grounded in web data and, in some surfaces, in the document or email a user currently has open, without touching the rest of the tenant.
The consequence of assuming Copilot Chat can read all your SharePoint is disappointment; it cannot. It can reason over the open Word document, the highlighted email text, or uploaded files up to the tenant limit, as the February 2026 Microsoft 365 Copilot release notes make clear. A real example: Daniel Kim, a lawyer in Chicago on E3, uses Copilot Chat every day to summarize opposing-counsel emails he has open in Outlook, and he pays nothing extra. The common misconception is that Copilot Chat is the “lite” version of the paid Copilot; in practice, it is a genuinely different product with no Graph grounding by default.
Microsoft 365 Copilot (the $30 add-on)
This is the full-fat Copilot that lives inside Word, Excel, PowerPoint, Outlook, Teams, OneNote, and Loop. It is an add-on license, not a replacement license, and the Microsoft 365 Copilot pricing page confirms the $30 per user per month list price, annual commitment, with a 300-seat minimum for enterprise sales in some channels as the CheckThat.ai pricing breakdown notes.
The consequence of buying this without first cleaning up oversharing is that Copilot becomes a search engine for mistakes, surfacing HR files, finance forecasts, and draft contracts to users who technically had permission but never browsed to them. A named example: Rachel Nguyen, an IT director at a Cleveland manufacturer, ran a ninety-day Copilot pilot after running Purview content search and saw zero oversharing incidents, a result she credits entirely to the pre-work. The common misconception is that Copilot breaks existing permissions; it does not, but it does reveal them at scale.
Copilot Studio, GitHub Copilot, Copilot for Security, Copilot in Dynamics 365
Copilot Studio is the low-code tool for building custom agents and chatbots, priced at $200 per tenant per month for 25,000 messages or on a pay-as-you-go meter, as the Microsoft Learn Copilot Studio billing page explains. GitHub Copilot Business at $19 per user per month and GitHub Copilot Enterprise at $39 per user per month are separate developer tools. Copilot for Security is usage-based with Security Compute Units billed hourly, and it is bundled into E5 starting mid-2026 according to the TrustedTechTeam 2026 plan update. Copilot features inside Dynamics 365 require Dynamics licenses, not Microsoft 365.
The consequence of ignoring these distinctions is budget overrun; the common misconception is that “we already pay for Copilot” covers every surface, when in practice each product has its own meter.
E3 vs. E5 vs. E3+Copilot vs. E5+Copilot
The cleanest way to answer the headline question is with a side-by-side comparison, because the full value of E3 only becomes visible when you put it next to the alternatives. The Microsoft Learn comparison of E3 and E5 Copilot features is the anchor source for what each tier supports once Copilot is attached.
| Plan and 2026 Price | Copilot Experience You Get |
|---|---|
| Microsoft 365 E3 at $36, rising to $39 on July 1, 2026 | Copilot Chat included, no Copilot in Word, Excel, PowerPoint, Outlook, Teams; SharePoint Advanced Management not included |
| Microsoft 365 E3 plus Copilot add-on, roughly $66 total before discount as per Redress Compliance | Full Copilot in all core apps, Graph-grounded answers, Copilot Pages, basic Purview labels, agent access |
| Microsoft 365 E5 at $57, rising to $60 on July 1, 2026 per AlphaBOLD pricing guide | Copilot Chat included, no in-app Copilot, plus Defender P2, Purview auto-labeling, Security Copilot starter |
| Microsoft 365 E5 plus Copilot add-on, roughly $87 total | Full Copilot, plus auto-labeling, advanced DLP, Insider Risk, Communications Compliance, Priva, SharePoint Advanced Management |
The consequence of stopping at E3 without the add-on is that users get AI chat but not AI authorship; the consequence of jumping to E5+Copilot without labels in place is an over-provisioned tenant that costs $90 per user per month and still leaks. The common misconception is that E5 includes Copilot; it does not, and Microsoft has been explicit on this point in the official Copilot minimum requirements page.
Three Real Scenarios: When E3 Alone Is Enough
Abstract licensing rules matter less than how they play out in real buying decisions. Below are the three most common scenarios that U.S. buyers face in 2026, each illustrating a different trade-off. Each scenario is backed by Microsoft Learn deployment guidance and the CloudRevolution Copilot prerequisites guide.
Scenario 1: Small Law Firm on E3 With Light AI Needs
A twelve-attorney firm in Austin uses E3 for Word, Outlook, and Teams and wants generic AI help for drafting client letters and summarizing news. The partners do not want to pay $30 per user per month on top of E3 and they do not want AI reading case files automatically.
| Action the Firm Takes | Resulting Consequence |
|---|---|
| Stay on E3 and use the included Copilot Chat | Attorneys get secure AI chat, grounded in the web and the open document, at no extra cost |
| Skip the Microsoft 365 Copilot add-on | No automatic summaries of mailboxes or case folders, which is the firm’s intended outcome |
| Turn on Purview data retention policies | All Copilot Chat prompts and responses stay inside the tenant boundary and remain discoverable |
Scenario 2: 2,000-Seat Hospital System Under HIPAA
A regional hospital system in Pennsylvania runs E5 on clinicians and E3 on administrative staff. HIPAA and the HHS OCR guidance on HIPAA and AI require them to treat any AI that touches PHI as part of the covered entity’s information system.
| Action the Hospital Takes | Resulting Consequence |
|---|---|
| Add Microsoft 365 Copilot only to E5 clinician seats | Copilot inherits E5 auto-labeling, so PHI in Word and Outlook is protected automatically |
| Leave E3 admin staff on Copilot Chat only | Admin staff get web AI help, no automatic PHI exposure, at zero incremental cost |
| Sign a Microsoft BAA covering Copilot | The hospital satisfies HIPAA §164.308(b) business associate requirements for AI processing |
Scenario 3: 10,000-Seat Manufacturer Chasing ROI
A Michigan manufacturer on E3 wants to pilot full Copilot with 500 users to measure productivity. The CFO requires a documented ROI before rolling to the next 2,000 seats.
| Action the Manufacturer Takes | Resulting Consequence |
|---|---|
| Buy 500 Microsoft 365 Copilot add-ons at $30 per user per month | Adds roughly $180,000 per year to the Microsoft bill, per the LinkedIn enterprise-cost analysis |
| Run a 90-day pilot with Viva Insights Copilot Dashboard | Measures adoption, time saved, and prompt quality with hard numbers |
| Keep the other 9,500 users on E3 Copilot Chat | Entire workforce still gets AI chat with no additional spend |
Concrete Named Examples of E3 + Copilot in the Wild
The cleanest way to see how E3 and Copilot interact is to follow specific people through specific tasks. These examples draw on public Microsoft case studies and the Microsoft 365 Copilot release notes that document the exact features each user touches.
Example 1: Priya Shah, nonprofit marketing director, Boston. Priya runs an E3 tenant with 80 users and buys 10 Copilot add-ons for her senior team. She uses Copilot in Word to draft grant proposals, Copilot in Excel to build donor pivot tables, and Copilot Chat, which is free in E3, on her phone during commutes. The consequence is that she spends $300 per month for the ten add-ons and keeps her junior staff on Copilot Chat only. She avoids the common mistake of licensing everyone, which would have cost $2,400 per month.
Example 2: James Whitfield, compliance officer, Pennsylvania hospital. James is on E5 with Copilot. He uses Copilot in Outlook to triage OCR breach notifications and Copilot in Teams to get intelligent meeting recap during audit committee meetings. Because his tenant has auto-labeling, Copilot will not surface unlabeled PHI to interns. The consequence of his careful setup is zero oversharing incidents across a six-month pilot, documented in his internal audit log.
Example 3: Lena Ortiz, CFO, Seattle software firm. Lena runs E3 for 300 employees. She buys 50 Copilot add-ons for finance and sales and 200 GitHub Copilot Business licenses at $19 for engineering. She skips Copilot for Security because she lacks a Sentinel deployment. Her total 2026 AI spend is roughly $4,300 per month, a number she can defend to the board because each SKU maps to a measured workflow.
Mistakes to Avoid When Licensing Copilot on E3
The following mistakes appear in the 2026 Microsoft Copilot licensing guide from Redress Compliance and in the Microsoft Negotiations Copilot blog. Each is a common, avoidable error that costs real money.
- Buying Office 365 E3 thinking it is Microsoft 365 E3, and then discovering no Windows or Intune entitlement, which blocks Copilot readiness.
- Assuming Copilot is included in the base E3 price, which leads to broken internal communications when the $30 add-on bill appears on renewal.
- Skipping SharePoint permission cleanup before Copilot rollout, which causes oversharing incidents on day one.
- Licensing every user with the add-on instead of targeting the 20 to 30 percent who will actually use it, which wastes budget by a factor of three.
- Forgetting the 300-seat enterprise minimum in some channels, which forces a last-minute move to Copilot Business at a different price point.
- Running Copilot on a tenant without Microsoft 365 apps installed on devices, which disables in-app Copilot entirely, as the CloudRevolution prerequisites list warns.
- Treating Copilot Free at copilot.microsoft.com as enterprise-safe, which strips commercial data protection and violates most U.S. corporate acceptable-use policies.
- Not signing the Microsoft Business Associate Agreement before using Copilot on PHI, which breaches HIPAA §164.308(b) the moment the first prompt hits the service.
- Ignoring the July 1, 2026 base-price increase and the end of volume discounts, which inflates renewal budgets by 8 to 10 percent unexpectedly.
- Mixing up Copilot Studio messages with Microsoft 365 Copilot prompts, which leads to surprise Power Platform bills.
Compliance Angles Specific to U.S. Law
Microsoft 365 E3 sits inside Microsoft’s U.S. commercial cloud boundary, which holds FedRAMP High authorization, HIPAA, SOC 2 Type II, ISO 27001, and state-level attestations. When you layer Copilot on E3, Copilot inherits that same boundary, but only for tenants that have turned on the relevant controls. Federal agencies can use Microsoft 365 Copilot through Microsoft 365 GCC High with Copilot GA in 2026, but they must buy the GCC High SKU, not commercial E3.
The governing rule for federal customers is FedRAMP PMO guidance plus each agency’s CIO memo; the consequence of using commercial Copilot on federal data is a FedRAMP non-compliance finding and potential ATO revocation. For state-regulated data such as New York’s SHIELD Act or California’s CCPA and CPRA, Copilot’s enterprise data protection satisfies the reasonable security standard only if sensitivity labels and DLP are configured. The common misconception is that buying Copilot is the control; the control is the configuration, and the software is merely the surface.
HIPAA, FERPA, and GLBA Nuances
HIPAA covered entities must execute a Microsoft BAA that explicitly covers Copilot services. FERPA-regulated K-12 and higher-ed institutions should use the Microsoft 365 A3 or A5 education SKUs, which have their own Copilot add-on rates and a separate Data Protection Addendum. GLBA-regulated financial institutions must ensure their written information security program covers Copilot as a third-party service under the FTC Safeguards Rule.
The consequence of missing any of these is a finding at the next regulatory exam. A real example: Rachel Nguyen, a community-bank CIO, delayed her Copilot rollout by sixty days to update her GLBA risk assessment and vendor inventory; her next OCC exam passed without a finding. The common misconception is that Microsoft’s posture alone covers the customer’s obligations; it does not.
Do’s and Don’ts for E3 Customers Considering Copilot
The do’s and don’ts below come straight from Microsoft’s own Copilot adoption guidance and the Microsoft 365 Copilot minimum requirements page.
- Do turn on Copilot Chat for all E3 users because it is free, because it provides enterprise data protection, and because users will otherwise default to unmanaged consumer tools.
- Do run a Purview content search before buying the Copilot add-on because oversharing is the single biggest cause of failed pilots.
- Do start with a 90-day pilot of 100 to 300 add-on seats because that is enough to measure ROI without overcommitting budget.
- Do lock in your E3 renewal before July 1, 2026 because the list price rises from $36 to $39 that day per Apex Digital.
Do map each Copilot SKU to a named business owner because untagged spend is the first thing procurement cuts in a downturn.
Don’t assume E3 includes the paid Copilot because it does not, and the difference is roughly $360 per user per year.
- Don’t license Copilot to users who rarely open Word or Excel because the add-on is worthless without in-app usage.
- Don’t enable Copilot on a tenant where sensitivity labels are off because you will surface HR, finance, and legal files to the wrong people.
- Don’t ignore GitHub Copilot, Copilot for Security, and Copilot Studio as separate line items because each has its own meter and contract.
- Don’t buy Copilot without an executive sponsor because change management, not licensing, is what determines whether the tool is used.
Pros and Cons of Adding Copilot to an E3 Tenant
The pros and cons below reflect the 2026 Gartner and Forrester analyses summarized by Adoptify and the Cloudswitched 2026 Copilot comparison.
- Pro: Native integration with Word, Excel, PowerPoint, Outlook, and Teams means users do not need to learn a new app, which reduces training costs.
- Pro: Graph grounding means Copilot can cite real documents, real emails, and real meeting transcripts, which makes answers more useful than generic chatbots.
- Pro: Enterprise data protection keeps prompts and responses inside the tenant boundary, which satisfies most U.S. compliance regimes when configured correctly.
- Pro: Administrative controls in the Microsoft 365 admin center let IT turn features on by group, pilot by department, and revoke by license, which gives procurement real flexibility.
Pro: The included Copilot Chat gives every E3 user a safe AI chat tool at no extra cost, which reduces shadow AI risk.
Con: The $30 per user per month add-on is non-trivial, especially at scale, and volume discounts were eliminated in November 2025 per AlphaBOLD.
- Con: The add-on requires a qualifying base license, so lower-tier users or frontline workers on legacy plans may need an upgrade first.
- Con: ROI is hard to measure in the first 60 days, which makes CFOs nervous and can stall rollouts.
- Con: Oversharing is a real risk on unprepared tenants, and the cleanup work is substantial.
- Con: Feature parity across E3 and E5 is not complete, so E3 customers miss SharePoint Advanced Management and auto-labeling, which are the precise controls you most want with Copilot turned on.
Step-by-Step: How to Add Copilot to an E3 Tenant
The process below comes from the Microsoft 365 Copilot setup guide and the Microsoft 365 admin center license assignment documentation. Every step has a specific reason and a specific consequence if skipped.
- Verify your base license in the admin center under Billing, Your products; you must see Microsoft 365 E3, Microsoft 365 E5, Business Standard, or Business Premium. Skipping this step means you cannot even purchase the add-on.
- Purchase the Microsoft 365 Copilot add-on through your CSP partner, EA, or MCA. The pricing is $30 per user per month annual, and buying without a partner eliminates negotiation leverage on the base E3 price.
- Assign licenses to pilot users under Users, Active users, Licenses. Assigning to the wrong group delays ROI measurement and confuses the Copilot Dashboard in Viva Insights.
- Run a Purview content search using keywords like “salary” and “confidential” to surface oversharing before Copilot does. Skipping this step causes the oversharing incidents that derail most pilots.
- Turn on Microsoft Purview sensitivity labels, at minimum Public, Internal, Confidential, and Highly Confidential. Without labels, Copilot cannot respect document sensitivity at query time.
- Install or update Microsoft 365 apps on devices to the Current Channel, because Copilot requires the latest in-app integration to render the Copilot pane.
- Communicate to users with a short Copilot usage policy pointing to the Microsoft responsible AI principles. Skipping communication is the single biggest adoption killer.
- Measure adoption with the Copilot Dashboard in Viva Insights and iterate every thirty days. Without measurement, you cannot defend renewal.
FAQs
Does Microsoft 365 E3 include Microsoft 365 Copilot by default?
No. E3 includes the free Copilot Chat, but the full Microsoft 365 Copilot inside Word, Excel, PowerPoint, Outlook, and Teams is a separate $30 per user per month add-on.
Is Copilot Chat really free with E3 in 2026?
Yes. Every licensed E3 user gets Copilot Chat at no extra cost, with enterprise data protection, as confirmed on the Microsoft Learn Copilot Chat overview.
Do I need E5 to buy the Copilot add-on?
No. E3, E5, Business Standard, and Business Premium all qualify as base licenses for the Microsoft 365 Copilot add-on, per the Microsoft minimum requirements page.
Is there a minimum seat count to buy Microsoft 365 Copilot?
No. The 300-seat minimum that existed at launch was removed for most channels in 2024, though some enterprise agreements still carry it as CheckThat.ai notes.
Will the E3 price change in 2026?
Yes. Microsoft confirmed a list price rise from $36 to $39 per user per month effective July 1, 2026 in its December 2025 pricing update.
Does the $30 Copilot add-on also rise in July 2026?
No. The base M365 plans rise in July 2026, but the Copilot add-on itself remains at $30 per user per month list, as AlphaBOLD confirms.
Can federal agencies use Copilot with E3?
No. Federal agencies must use the GCC High SKU with the specific GCC High Copilot add-on for FedRAMP High workloads, not commercial E3.
Is Microsoft 365 Copilot covered under HIPAA?
Yes. Copilot is a covered service under the standard Microsoft Business Associate Agreement when used on a qualifying commercial tenant.
Does Copilot use my data to train public models?
No. Microsoft’s enterprise data protection commitments explicitly exclude tenant prompts and responses from public model training, per the Copilot Chat overview.
Is GitHub Copilot included in Microsoft 365 E3?
No. GitHub Copilot is a separate product billed through GitHub at $19 per user per month for Business or $39 per user per month for Enterprise.
Does E3 include Copilot for Security?
No. Copilot for Security is a separate SKU billed in Security Compute Units and bundled into E5 starting in mid-2026, not into E3 per TrustedTechTeam.
Can I mix E3 and E5 users in the same tenant and add Copilot to only some?
Yes. License assignment in Microsoft 365 is per-user, so you can target Copilot add-ons only to specific users, which is the recommended cost-control pattern.